Localized prostate cancer means the cancer is confined to the prostate with no identified regional lymph-node or distant metastatic spread. In TNM terms, localized disease is generally T1–T2, N0, M0. That anatomical definition does not mean every localized cancer requires treatment or carries the same prognosis. A small Grade Group 1 tumor with a low PSA may be safely monitored with active surveillance, while a prostate-confined Grade Group 4 or 5 cancer may need staging and curative-intent treatment because its biology is substantially more aggressive.
Localized prostate cancer is best understood in two layers: where the cancer is and how risky it appears to be. The first layer is stage—the disease remains in the prostate. The second combines Grade Group, PSA, tumor amount, MRI and other features. Those risk features determine whether the most appropriate discussion centers on active surveillance, radical prostatectomy, radiation therapy or observation based on age, health and life expectancy.
01What Does Localized Prostate Cancer Mean?
The cancer has not been identified outside the prostate
Localized disease generally corresponds to:
T1 or T2, N0, M0.
This means:
- the primary tumor is clinically confined to the prostate;
- no regional pelvic lymph-node metastasis has been identified;
- no distant metastasis has been identified.
For the complete staging system, see Prostate Cancer Stages.
What is T1 localized prostate cancer?
T1 cancer is clinically inapparent.
It may be:
- found incidentally in prostate tissue removed for another reason;
- or identified by needle biopsy during investigation of PSA or another cancer concern.
Many PSA-detected prostate cancers are diagnosed before they become palpable.
What is T2 localized prostate cancer?
T2 means cancer is clinically confined to the prostate.
Traditional clinical subdivisions include:
- T2a — one half of one lobe or less;
- T2b — more than half of one lobe but not both;
- T2c — both lobes.
Can MRI see a larger lesion while the cancer is still localized?
Yes.
A sizable lesion may still remain within the prostate boundary.
Prostate MRI helps assess:
- lesion location;
- relationship to the prostate capsule;
- possible extraprostatic extension;
- seminal-vesicle involvement;
- and prostate volume.
If MRI suggests definite extension outside the gland, the disease may move into a locally advanced anatomical category.
Does localized mean the cancer cannot spread?
No.
Localized means no regional or distant spread is currently identified.
Future progression risk depends on:
- Grade Group;
- PSA;
- tumor amount;
- MRI findings;
- histological architecture;
- and how the disease behaves over time.
Does localized mean low risk?
No.
This is one of the most important distinctions.
Two cancers can both be T2 N0 M0 yet have very different biology.
For example:
- one may be Grade Group 1 with PSA 5 ng/mL;
- another may be Grade Group 5 with PSA 18 ng/mL.
Both can still be anatomically localized.
Localized is not the same as “early and harmless.” It describes anatomical containment. A patient still needs Grade Group, PSA, biopsy extent and MRI interpreted before the disease can be called low-, intermediate- or high-risk.
02How Are Localized Prostate Cancers Divided Into Low, Intermediate and High Risk?
Risk groups estimate behavior within the same anatomical stage
Risk classification exists because T1–T2 N0 M0 prostate cancer covers a wide range of biology.
Current European risk frameworks primarily integrate:
- clinical T category;
- PSA;
- ISUP Grade Group.
MRI, PSA density, tumor amount and adverse histology can refine that assessment further.
What is commonly considered low-risk localized disease?
A typical EAU low-risk profile combines:
- PSA below 10 ng/mL;
- Grade Group 1;
- clinical stage T1–T2a.
All three features need to be favorable.
What is intermediate-risk disease?
Intermediate-risk localized cancer generally includes one or more features such as:
- PSA 10–20 ng/mL;
- Grade Group 2 or 3;
- clinical T2b disease.
This group is heterogeneous.
Modern clinical practice often distinguishes more favorable intermediate disease from less favorable intermediate disease because:
- amount of pattern 4 differs;
- tumor volume differs;
- PSA characteristics differ;
- and the need for additional staging or treatment intensification differs.
What is high-risk localized prostate cancer?
A typical EAU high-risk localized profile includes one or more of:
- PSA above 20 ng/mL;
- Grade Group 4 or 5;
- clinical T2c disease.
T3–T4 disease moves beyond the localized category into locally advanced disease.
Why is Grade Group so important?
The difference between:
- Grade Group 1;
- Grade Group 2;
- Grade Group 3;
- Grade Group 4;
- Grade Group 5
reflects increasing histological aggressiveness.
The mapping from Gleason patterns to Grade Groups is explained in Gleason Score vs Grade Group.
How does percentage pattern 4 change interpretation?
Two Grade Group 2 cancers can both be 3+4=7 yet contain very different amounts of pattern 4.
For example:
- one may contain only a small pattern 4 component;
- another may approach the threshold where pattern 4 becomes predominant.
Modern pathology therefore often reports the percentage of pattern 4.
Why does cribriform or intraductal carcinoma matter?
Cribriform pattern 4 and intraductal carcinoma are adverse pathological features associated with less favorable outcomes.
Their presence can make otherwise apparently favorable disease less suitable for conservative management.
How does PSA density refine localized cancer risk?
PSA density relates PSA to prostate volume.
A lower PSA density is generally more reassuring than a high density when the Grade Group and MRI are otherwise favorable.
This is particularly useful when evaluating:
- active-surveillance eligibility;
- MRI findings;
- discordance between PSA and biopsy;
- and suspicion that a biopsy may have under-sampled the gland.
Does MRI change the formal Grade Group?
No.
MRI can refine:
- tumor localization;
- volume estimation;
- possible capsular involvement;
- and likelihood that a biopsy missed important disease.
But Grade Group still comes from tissue pathology.
Risk groups are treatment-planning tools, not permanent identities. A man’s classification can change when MRI, repeat biopsy, surgery or additional staging reveals information that was not available initially.
03When Is Active Surveillance Used for Localized Prostate Cancer?
Active surveillance is treatment deferred with structured monitoring
Active surveillance is designed for prostate cancer that appears unlikely to cause harm in the near term.
The goal is to:
- avoid or delay treatment side effects;
- continue monitoring for biological change;
- and offer curative treatment if the disease shows clinically meaningful progression.
Who is most clearly suited to active surveillance?
Current EAU guidance regards active surveillance as a standard approach for men with appropriately selected low-risk localized prostate cancer and sufficient life expectancy to benefit from eventual curative treatment if progression occurs.
Typical favorable features include:
- Grade Group 1;
- low PSA;
- low PSA density;
- limited tumor volume;
- localized clinical stage;
- and no concerning MRI or adverse pathology findings.
Can Grade Group 2 cancer be placed on active surveillance?
Selected Grade Group 2 cancers may be considered.
Appropriate candidates generally have favorable features such as:
- a small proportion of Gleason pattern 4;
- limited cancer extent in biopsy cores;
- low PSA and PSA density;
- localized T stage;
- favorable MRI findings;
- and absence of aggressive cribriform or intraductal architecture.
This is a selective decision rather than a general rule for all Grade Group 2 cancers.
Who is usually not a good active-surveillance candidate?
Surveillance becomes less appropriate when there is:
- predominant pattern 4, such as Grade Group 3;
- Grade Group 4 or 5 disease;
- substantial tumor volume;
- adverse cribriform or intraductal pathology;
- clear extraprostatic extension;
- or other evidence of biologically aggressive cancer.
What does active surveillance actually involve?
Modern surveillance is not “do nothing.”
Programs typically combine:
- regular PSA measurements;
- clinical review;
- repeat MRI when appropriate;
- and repeat biopsy or tissue reassessment according to the protocol and changing risk.
How often is PSA checked?
Exact schedules differ by program.
EAU guidance generally supports PSA monitoring at least every six months during active surveillance.
A single PSA rise usually should not automatically trigger treatment.
Instead, a concerning PSA pattern can trigger:
- repeat PSA confirmation;
- MRI;
- risk reassessment;
- or repeat biopsy.
Why doesn’t PSA alone trigger treatment?
PSA can change because of:
- benign prostate enlargement;
- prostatitis;
- urinary retention;
- recent procedures;
- or natural biological variation.
Treatment decisions should therefore be based on evidence that the cancer itself has become more concerning.
What role does MRI play during surveillance?
MRI can assess whether a known lesion:
- has increased in size;
- has become more suspicious;
- shows new adverse anatomical features;
- or whether a new target has appeared.
MRI progression may prompt targeted biopsy, but MRI alone generally does not replace histological confirmation when a major treatment decision depends on grade progression.
What changes can trigger treatment?
Potential triggers include:
- upgrading on repeat biopsy;
- increasing higher-grade pattern;
- increasing tumor volume;
- adverse pathology emerging;
- MRI progression supported by tissue findings;
- or a patient’s preference to move from monitoring to treatment.
What is the difference between active surveillance and watchful waiting?
They are not synonyms.
Active surveillance is designed for men who remain candidates for curative treatment if the cancer progresses.
Watchful waiting is generally used when:
- life expectancy is limited;
- other health problems are more likely to determine survival;
- or curative treatment is unlikely to provide meaningful benefit.
Watchful waiting emphasizes symptom-directed care rather than repeated testing intended to preserve a window for cure.
What did the long-term ProtecT trial teach us?
The ProtecT randomized trial followed men with screen-detected localized prostate cancer for approximately 15 years.
Prostate-cancer mortality remained low in all three original groups:
- active monitoring;
- radical prostatectomy;
- radiotherapy.
However, metastases and clinical progression occurred more often in the active-monitoring group.
A critical limitation is that ProtecT’s “active monitoring” relied much more heavily on PSA than modern MRI-informed active-surveillance protocols.
The study therefore supports two ideas at the same time:
- many localized cancers have a long natural history;
- and careful patient selection and modern surveillance intensity matter.
Active surveillance is an active clinical strategy. The intent is not to ignore cancer. It is to preserve quality of life while repeatedly checking that the disease still meets criteria for safe monitoring.
04When Are Surgery or Radiation Used for Localized Prostate Cancer?
Curative treatment is considered when the expected cancer benefit outweighs treatment burden
Localized prostate cancer is often potentially curable.
The decision to treat depends on:
- risk group;
- Grade Group;
- PSA;
- clinical and MRI stage;
- tumor volume;
- life expectancy;
- urinary function;
- sexual function;
- bowel health;
- other illnesses;
- and patient preferences.
When is radical prostatectomy considered?
Radical prostatectomy removes:
- the prostate;
- seminal vesicles;
- and selected surrounding tissue.
Pelvic lymph-node dissection may be performed when nodal staging is clinically indicated.
Surgery is one curative-intent option for selected men with:
- localized disease;
- reasonable life expectancy;
- and sufficient health to tolerate an operation.
What are the major functional effects after prostatectomy?
Important possible effects include:
- urinary incontinence;
- erectile dysfunction;
- loss of ejaculation;
- infertility;
- penile shortening or altered sexual function in some men;
- and surgical complications.
Recovery varies substantially according to:
- baseline function;
- age;
- nerve-sparing feasibility;
- tumor location;
- surgical technique;
- and rehabilitation.
When is radiation therapy considered?
Radiation is another major curative-intent option for localized prostate cancer.
Approaches can include:
- external-beam radiation therapy;
- moderately hypofractionated schedules;
- selected stereotactic body radiotherapy protocols;
- low-dose-rate brachytherapy;
- high-dose-rate brachytherapy;
- or combinations in selected higher-risk disease.
Does radiation always require hormone therapy?
No.
The need for androgen-deprivation therapy depends strongly on risk group.
For example:
- many low-risk patients receiving radiation do not need ADT;
- selected intermediate-risk patients may receive short-course ADT depending on the exact risk profile;
- high-risk localized disease more commonly uses longer-course ADT with radiation.
What are important radiation side effects?
Possible effects include:
- urinary frequency or urgency;
- temporary urinary burning;
- bowel frequency, urgency or rectal irritation;
- erectile dysfunction developing over time;
- fatigue during treatment;
- and uncommon late urinary or bowel complications.
Brachytherapy has a different urinary side-effect profile from external-beam radiation, so “radiation” should not be treated as one identical procedure.
Is surgery better than radiation?
There is no universal answer.
For many men with localized prostate cancer, both are accepted curative-intent approaches.
The more useful comparison is:
- Which approach fits the cancer risk?
- Which side-effect profile matters most to this patient?
- Does baseline urinary obstruction make one approach easier or harder?
- Is the patient already experiencing erectile dysfunction?
- Are bowel conditions present?
- Does the patient prefer surgery, a radiation course or surveillance?
What did randomized evidence show about long-term prostate-cancer mortality?
The 15-year ProtecT results found low prostate-cancer mortality after:
- prostatectomy;
- radiotherapy;
- and active monitoring.
The trial did not demonstrate a large prostate-cancer mortality difference among the three original groups over that follow-up period.
However:
- metastatic progression was more frequent with active monitoring;
- many participants had relatively favorable disease;
- and treatment and surveillance techniques have evolved since enrollment.
The appropriate conclusion is not that treatment never matters, but that localized prostate cancer often allows enough time for risk-based shared decision-making.
When is treatment more urgent?
Curative treatment becomes more compelling as features become less favorable, such as:
- Grade Group 3 or higher;
- large pattern 4 burden;
- Grade Group 4–5 disease;
- rising risk from PSA and PSA density;
- extensive biopsy involvement;
- adverse MRI findings;
- or adverse histology.
What about high-risk cancer that still appears localized?
High-risk localized prostate cancer is still potentially curable, but it usually requires:
- more complete staging;
- discussion of multimodal therapy;
- and realistic counseling about recurrence risk.
Treatment may involve:
- radical prostatectomy in selected patients;
- radiation with androgen-deprivation therapy;
- and additional systemic intensification in selected very-high-risk contexts.
What is focal therapy?
Focal therapy attempts to destroy a selected cancer focus rather than treating or removing the entire prostate.
Techniques include energy-based approaches such as:
- high-intensity focused ultrasound;
- cryotherapy;
- and other focal ablation technologies.
Focal therapy remains more dependent on careful patient selection, imaging, mapping and long-term follow-up than established whole-gland surgery or radiation.
It should not be assumed to be appropriate simply because a cancer is localized.
How should a patient compare surgery and radiation?
Useful questions include:
- What is my exact Grade Group and risk category?
- Is active surveillance still oncologically reasonable?
- Do I need metastatic staging before treatment?
- What is my baseline urinary function?
- What is my baseline erectile function?
- Would my anatomy make surgery or radiation technically more difficult?
- Would radiation require ADT in my risk group?
- How might each option affect continence, erections, ejaculation and bowel function?
- What happens if PSA rises after the treatment?
- What follow-up schedule is expected?
Why does life expectancy matter?
Localized prostate cancer often grows slowly.
Curative treatment is most valuable when a patient is likely to live long enough for untreated cancer to become clinically important.
For men with substantial competing health problems or limited life expectancy, observation or watchful waiting may provide a better balance than aggressive treatment.
The treatment decision should not be reduced to “remove it” versus “radiate it.” For low-risk disease, the first decision may be whether treatment is needed at all. For intermediate- and high-risk disease, the discussion shifts toward which curative strategy best fits cancer biology, anatomy, health and expected side effects.
→Localized Prostate Cancer Management by Clinical Context
| Clinical context | Typical features | Management commonly discussed | Main clinical priority |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low-risk localized | Usually Grade Group 1, PSA below 10, limited T1–T2a disease. | Active surveillance commonly preferred; surgery or radiation remain options for selected patients. | Avoid unnecessary treatment while preserving opportunity for cure if biology changes. |
| Selected favorable Grade Group 2 | Low-volume 3+4, small pattern 4 component, favorable PSA/MRI features. | Active surveillance may be reasonable for carefully selected patients; surgery or radiation also considered. | Determine whether pattern 4 burden is low enough for safe monitoring. |
| Unfavorable intermediate | Greater pattern 4 burden, Grade Group 3 or additional adverse risk features. | Definitive local treatment more commonly recommended; radiation may include short-course ADT depending on risk. | Reduce progression and recurrence risk while balancing side effects. |
| High-risk localized | High PSA and/or Grade Group 4–5 while remaining N0 M0. | Metastatic staging plus curative-intent surgery or radiation-based multimodal treatment in selected patients. | Treat aggressive biology while checking for disease beyond the prostate. |
| Limited life expectancy | Competing illnesses make prostate cancer unlikely to determine survival. | Watchful waiting or symptom-directed observation may be more appropriate. | Avoid treatment burden unlikely to improve meaningful survival. |
?Common Questions About Localized Prostate Cancer
| Question | Practical answer |
|---|---|
| What is localized prostate cancer? | Cancer that remains confined to the prostate with no identified regional lymph-node or distant metastatic spread, generally T1–T2 N0 M0. |
| Is localized prostate cancer early-stage cancer? | Usually it is considered anatomically early or organ-confined disease, but biological risk can still range from low to high. |
| Can localized prostate cancer be high grade? | Yes. Grade Group 4 or 5 cancer can still be localized if no regional or distant spread is identified. |
| Is localized prostate cancer curable? | Many localized cancers are potentially curable with surgery or radiation, but outcome depends on Grade Group, PSA, tumor burden and other risk features. |
| Does localized prostate cancer always need treatment? | No. Many low-risk cancers are managed with active surveillance. |
| What is active surveillance? | Structured monitoring designed to delay or avoid treatment while preserving curative treatment if clinically important progression appears. |
| Is active surveillance the same as doing nothing? | No. It usually involves regular PSA assessment, clinical review, MRI and repeat tissue evaluation according to risk. |
| Who is best suited to active surveillance? | Men with appropriately selected low-risk localized disease, particularly Grade Group 1 with favorable PSA, PSA density, tumor volume and MRI findings. |
| Can Grade Group 2 be monitored? | Selected low-volume 3+4 cancers with a small pattern 4 component and otherwise favorable features may be considered for surveillance. |
| Can Grade Group 3 be monitored? | Grade Group 3 is generally less suitable for active surveillance because pattern 4 predominates and progression risk is higher. |
| Can high-risk localized disease still be cured? | Yes. High-risk localized cancer can still be treated with curative intent, although recurrence risk is greater and multimodal treatment may be needed. |
| What is watchful waiting? | A symptom-directed strategy generally used when life expectancy or health makes curative treatment unlikely to provide meaningful benefit. |
| How is watchful waiting different from active surveillance? | Active surveillance monitors for a point when curative treatment should begin; watchful waiting usually avoids curative intervention and focuses on symptoms if they develop. |
| What tests are used during active surveillance? | PSA, clinical review, MRI and repeat biopsy or tissue reassessment are used in varying combinations. |
| Does a PSA rise mean treatment must start? | No. A PSA change usually requires confirmation and interpretation with PSA density, MRI and sometimes repeat biopsy. |
| Does MRI replace repeat biopsy during surveillance? | Not reliably in every patient. MRI is highly useful, but tissue reassessment remains important when histological progression needs to be confirmed. |
| What is the main surgery for localized prostate cancer? | Radical prostatectomy. |
| What are common surgery side effects? | Urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction, loss of ejaculation and infertility are important potential effects. |
| Can localized prostate cancer be treated with radiation? | Yes. External-beam radiation and selected brachytherapy approaches can be used with curative intent. |
| Does radiation always require ADT? | No. ADT use depends on the risk group and radiation strategy. |
| What are common radiation side effects? | Urinary irritation, bowel symptoms, fatigue and erectile dysfunction can occur; timing and severity vary by technique. |
| Is surgery better than radiation? | Neither is universally superior for every patient. Cancer risk, age, health, anatomy and side-effect priorities determine which option fits best. |
| Can surgery be used for high-risk localized cancer? | Yes, in selected patients, often with the understanding that additional treatment may later be required depending on pathology and PSA. |
| Can radiation cure high-risk localized cancer? | Curative-intent radiation combined with appropriate systemic therapy is an established option for selected high-risk localized disease. |
| Does localized cancer need PSMA PET? | Not routinely for every low-risk patient. More sensitive metastatic staging is more relevant for unfavorable intermediate-risk, high-risk or locally advanced disease. |
| Can localized prostate cancer become metastatic? | Yes. The probability depends strongly on grade, PSA, tumor burden and treatment or surveillance course. |
| Does Grade Group determine treatment alone? | No. Stage, PSA, tumor amount, MRI, health and patient priorities also matter. |
| Does a prostate-confined MRI guarantee localized cancer? | No imaging test perfectly excludes microscopic extension, although MRI substantially improves local assessment. |
| What happens after definitive treatment? | PSA is monitored for evidence of recurrence. PSA behavior differs after prostatectomy and radiation. |
ΣKey Clinical Takeaways
- Localized prostate cancer generally means T1–T2 N0 M0 disease.
- The cancer is confined to the prostate with no identified regional or distant spread.
- Localized is an anatomical description.
- Localized does not automatically mean low risk.
- Grade Group, PSA and clinical stage are central to localized risk classification.
- MRI, PSA density, tumor volume and adverse pathology add important context.
- Low-risk disease commonly includes Grade Group 1, PSA below 10 and T1–T2a stage.
- Intermediate-risk localized disease commonly includes PSA 10–20, Grade Group 2–3 or T2b disease.
- High-risk localized disease can include PSA above 20, Grade Group 4–5 or T2c disease.
- T3–T4 disease is generally considered locally advanced rather than localized.
- Grade Group 1 cancer is not automatically harmless, but many appropriately selected cases can be safely monitored.
- Active surveillance is a structured clinical strategy rather than absence of care.
- Modern surveillance incorporates PSA, MRI and repeat tissue assessment.
- A single PSA rise should not automatically trigger treatment.
- Selected low-volume Grade Group 2 cancers may be considered for active surveillance.
- Cribriform architecture and intraductal carcinoma make surveillance less attractive.
- Active surveillance and watchful waiting are not the same.
- Watchful waiting is mainly symptom-directed and often used when competing health risks dominate life expectancy.
- Radical prostatectomy is a curative-intent option for selected localized disease.
- Radiation therapy is also a curative-intent option.
- No universal evidence-based winner exists between surgery and radiation for every localized patient.
- Surgery and radiation have different urinary, sexual and bowel side-effect profiles.
- Low-risk localized disease often does not require immediate definitive treatment.
- Intermediate-risk disease spans a broad biological spectrum.
- High-risk localized cancer can still be potentially curable.
- High-risk localized disease usually requires broader staging before treatment.
- PSMA PET/CT is generally more relevant when metastatic risk is sufficiently high rather than for routine low-risk staging.
- ProtecT showed low prostate-cancer mortality at 15 years across monitoring, surgery and radiotherapy groups, but progression and metastasis were more common with active monitoring.
- ProtecT active monitoring was less intensive than modern MRI-informed active surveillance.
- Life expectancy and competing medical conditions materially change the value of curative treatment.
- Treatment selection should incorporate baseline urinary, bowel and sexual function.
- The goal in localized disease is not simply to treat cancer—it is to match treatment intensity to the cancer’s real risk while preserving quality of life whenever safely possible.
Clinical bottom line: localized prostate cancer means the disease is still anatomically confined to the prostate, but that single label covers very different biological states. Low-risk Grade Group 1 cancer may be monitored safely with active surveillance, while unfavorable intermediate- or high-risk disease may justify surgery, radiation or multimodal curative treatment. The central decision is therefore not simply whether the cancer is “localized,” but whether its Grade Group, PSA, tumor amount, MRI findings and pathology make immediate treatment more beneficial than structured monitoring. Surgery and radiation are both established curative-intent approaches; neither is universally preferred, and the appropriate strategy depends on both cancer risk and the patient’s functional priorities.
Medical disclaimer: This article provides general medical education about localized prostate cancer. Active surveillance, surgery, radiation and observation should be considered using the complete pathology report, PSA, Grade Group, MRI findings, clinical stage, life expectancy, medical conditions, baseline urinary and sexual function and patient preferences. Individual treatment decisions should be made with the treating urology, radiation-oncology and medical-oncology teams when appropriate.
For the anatomical classification that comes before localized-risk assessment, review Prostate Cancer Stages. For the tissue grading that separates favorable from aggressive localized cancer, see What Is the Gleason Score? and Gleason Score vs Grade Group. For the diagnostic pathway that establishes the cancer, see How Prostate Cancer Is Diagnosed, Prostate MRI, Prostate Biopsy and MRI-Targeted Prostate Biopsy. For blood-test interpretation, review PSA Testing and PSA Density. For the full disease framework, return to the Prostate Cancer hub. The next guide explains advanced prostate cancer, including locally advanced disease, regional lymph-node involvement, metastatic disease and how systemic-treatment needs change as cancer extends beyond a localized state.
Evidence Sources
- European Association of Urology — Prostate Cancer Classification and Staging Systems: localized versus locally advanced classification, TNM, Grade Groups and risk categories.
- European Association of Urology — Prostate Cancer Treatment: active surveillance, watchful waiting, radical prostatectomy, radiotherapy and risk-adapted localized treatment.
- European Association of Urology — Diagnostic Evaluation: PSA density, MRI, staging imaging, PSMA PET/CT and staging recommendations by disease risk.
- EAU Patient Information — Localised Prostate Cancer: patient-facing explanation of localized disease, monitoring, surgery and radiation.
- American Urological Association / ASTRO — Clinically Localized Prostate Cancer Guideline: risk-based management, active surveillance, surgery, radiation and shared decision-making.
- National Cancer Institute — Prostate Cancer Treatment PDQ for patients: stage-specific localized treatment approaches and active surveillance.
- National Cancer Institute — Prostate Cancer Treatment, Health Professional Version: localized disease prognosis, surgery, radiation and observation strategies.
- Hamdy FC, Donovan JL, Lane JA, et al. Fifteen-Year Outcomes after Monitoring, Surgery, or Radiotherapy for Prostate Cancer. New England Journal of Medicine. 2023.
